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Since several vendors might use the same APP n marker type, application-specific markers often begin with a standard or vendor name e. At a restart marker, block-to-block predictor variables are reset, and the bitstream is synchronized to a byte boundary.

Restart markers provide means for recovery after bitstream error, such as transmission over an unreliable network or file corruption. Since the runs of macroblocks between restart markers may be independently decoded, these runs may be decoded in parallel. The encoding process consists of several steps:. The decoding process reverses these steps, except the quantization because it is irreversible. In the remainder of this section, the encoding and decoding processes are described in more detail.

Many of the options in the JPEG standard are not commonly used, and as mentioned above, most image software uses the simpler JFIF format when creating a JPEG file, which among other things specifies the encoding method. Here is a brief description of one of the more common methods of encoding when applied to an input that has 24 bits per pixel eight each of red, green, and blue. This particular option is a lossy data compression method. It has three components Y', C B and C R : the Y' component represents the brightness of a pixel, and the C B and C R components represent the chrominance split into blue and red components.

This is basically the same color space as used by digital color television as well as digital video including video DVDs. The compression is more efficient because the brightness information, which is more important to the eventual perceptual quality of the image, is confined to a single channel.

This more closely corresponds to the perception of color in the human visual system. The color transformation also improves compression by statistical decorrelation. However, some JPEG implementations in "highest quality" mode do not apply this step and instead keep the color information in the RGB color model , [50] where the image is stored in separate channels for red, green and blue brightness components. This results in less efficient compression, and would not likely be used when file size is especially important.

Due to the densities of color- and brightness-sensitive receptors in the human eye, humans can see considerably more fine detail in the brightness of an image the Y' component than in the hue and color saturation of an image the Cb and Cr components. Using this knowledge, encoders can be designed to compress images more efficiently. The ratios at which the downsampling is ordinarily done for JPEG images are no downsampling , reduction by a factor of 2 in the horizontal direction , or most commonly reduction by a factor of 2 in both the horizontal and vertical directions.

For the rest of the compression process, Y', Cb and Cr are processed separately and in a very similar manner. In video compression MCUs are called macroblocks. If the data for a channel does not represent an integer number of blocks then the encoder must fill the remaining area of the incomplete blocks with some form of dummy data.

Filling the edges with a fixed color for example, black can create ringing artifacts along the visible part of the border; repeating the edge pixels is a common technique that reduces but does not necessarily eliminate such artifacts, and more sophisticated border filling techniques can also be applied.

This step reduces the dynamic range requirements in the DCT processing stage that follows. If we perform this transformation on our matrix above, we get the following rounded to the nearest two digits beyond the decimal point :. Note the top-left corner entry with the rather large magnitude. This is the DC coefficient also called the constant component , which defines the basic hue for the entire block. The remaining 63 coefficients are the AC coefficients also called the alternating components.

The quantization step to follow accentuates this effect while simultaneously reducing the overall size of the DCT coefficients, resulting in a signal that is easy to compress efficiently in the entropy stage.

This may force the codec to temporarily use bit numbers to hold these coefficients, doubling the size of the image representation at this point; these values are typically reduced back to 8-bit values by the quantization step. The temporary increase in size at this stage is not a performance concern for most JPEG implementations, since typically only a very small part of the image is stored in full DCT form at any given time during the image encoding or decoding process.

The human eye is good at seeing small differences in brightness over a relatively large area, but not so good at distinguishing the exact strength of a high frequency brightness variation. This allows one to greatly reduce the amount of information in the high frequency components. This is done by simply dividing each component in the frequency domain by a constant for that component, and then rounding to the nearest integer.

This rounding operation is the only lossy operation in the whole process other than chroma subsampling if the DCT computation is performed with sufficiently high precision. As a result of this, it is typically the case that many of the higher frequency components are rounded to zero, and many of the rest become small positive or negative numbers, which take many fewer bits to represent.

The elements in the quantization matrix control the compression ratio, with larger values producing greater compression. Notice that most of the higher-frequency elements of the sub-block i. Entropy coding is a special form of lossless data compression. It involves arranging the image components in a " zigzag " order employing run-length encoding RLE algorithm that groups similar frequencies together, inserting length coding zeros, and then using Huffman coding on what is left.

The JPEG standard also allows, but does not require, decoders to support the use of arithmetic coding , which is mathematically superior to Huffman coding. However, this feature has rarely been used, as it was historically covered by patents requiring royalty-bearing licenses, and because it is slower to encode and decode compared to Huffman coding. The previous quantized DC coefficient is used to predict the current quantized DC coefficient. The difference between the two is encoded rather than the actual value.

The encoding of the 63 quantized AC coefficients does not use such prediction differencing. The zigzag sequence for the above quantized coefficients are shown below. This encoding mode is called baseline sequential encoding. Baseline JPEG also supports progressive encoding. While sequential encoding encodes coefficients of a single block at a time in a zigzag manner , progressive encoding encodes similar-positioned batch of coefficients of all blocks in one go called a scan , followed by the next batch of coefficients of all blocks, and so on.

Once all similar-positioned coefficients have been encoded, the next position to be encoded is the one occurring next in the zigzag traversal as indicated in the figure above. It has been found that baseline progressive JPEG encoding usually gives better compression as compared to baseline sequential JPEG due to the ability to use different Huffman tables see below tailored for different frequencies on each "scan" or "pass" which includes similar-positioned coefficients , though the difference is not too large.

In the rest of the article, it is assumed that the coefficient pattern generated is due to sequential mode. The JPEG standard provides general-purpose Huffman tables; encoders may also choose to generate Huffman tables optimized for the actual frequency distributions in images being encoded.

The process of encoding the zig-zag quantized data begins with a run-length encoding explained below, where:. The run-length encoding works by examining each non-zero AC coefficient x and determining how many zeroes came before the previous AC coefficient. With this information, two symbols are created:. The higher bits deal with the number of zeroes, while the lower bits denote the number of bits necessary to encode the value of x. This has the immediate implication of Symbol 1 being only able store information regarding the first 15 zeroes preceding the non-zero AC coefficient.

One is for ending the sequence prematurely when the remaining coefficients are zero called "End-of-Block" or "EOB" , and another when the run of zeroes goes beyond 15 before reaching a non-zero AC coefficient. In such a case where 16 zeroes are encountered before a given non-zero AC coefficient, Symbol 1 is encoded "specially" as: 15, 0 0. The overall process continues until "EOB" — denoted by 0, 0 — is reached. See above. From here, frequency calculations are made based on occurrences of the coefficients.

In our example block, most of the quantized coefficients are small numbers that are not preceded immediately by a zero coefficient. These more-frequent cases will be represented by shorter code words. The resulting compression ratio can be varied according to need by being more or less aggressive in the divisors used in the quantization phase. Ten to one compression usually results in an image that cannot be distinguished by eye from the original.

A compression ratio of is usually possible, but will look distinctly artifacted compared to the original. The appropriate level of compression depends on the use to which the image will be put. Those who use the World Wide Web may be familiar with the irregularities known as compression artifacts that appear in JPEG images, which may take the form of noise around contrasting edges especially curves and corners , or "blocky" images.

These are due to the quantization step of the JPEG algorithm. They are especially noticeable around sharp corners between contrasting colors text is a good example, as it contains many such corners. The analogous artifacts in MPEG video are referred to as mosquito noise , as the resulting "edge busyness" and spurious dots, which change over time, resemble mosquitoes swarming around the object. These artifacts can be reduced by choosing a lower level of compression ; they may be completely avoided by saving an image using a lossless file format, though this will result in a larger file size.

The images created with ray-tracing programs have noticeable blocky shapes on the terrain. Certain low-intensity compression artifacts might be acceptable when simply viewing the images, but can be emphasized if the image is subsequently processed, usually resulting in unacceptable quality. Consider the example below, demonstrating the effect of lossy compression on an edge detection processing step.

Some programs allow the user to vary the amount by which individual blocks are compressed. Stronger compression is applied to areas of the image that show fewer artifacts.

This way it is possible to manually reduce JPEG file size with less loss of quality. Since the quantization stage always results in a loss of information, JPEG standard is always a lossy compression codec.

Information is lost both in quantizing and rounding of the floating-point numbers. Even if the quantization matrix is a matrix of ones , information will still be lost in the rounding step.

Rounding the output to integer values since the original had integer values results in an image with values still shifted down by This is the decompressed subimage. If this occurs, the decoder needs to clip the output values so as to keep them within that range to prevent overflow when storing the decompressed image with the original bit depth. The error is most noticeable in the bottom-left corner where the bottom-left pixel becomes darker than the pixel to its immediate right.

These requirements are specified in ITU. T Recommendation T. For example, the output of a decoder implementation must not exceed an error of one quantization unit in the DCT domain when applied to the reference testing codestreams provided as part of the above standard. While unusual, and unlike many other and more modern standards, ITU. JPEG compression artifacts blend well into photographs with detailed non-uniform textures, allowing higher compression ratios.

Notice how a higher compression ratio first affects the high-frequency textures in the upper-left corner of the image, and how the contrasting lines become more fuzzy. The very high compression ratio severely affects the quality of the image, although the overall colors and image form are still recognizable. However, the precision of colors suffer less for a human eye than the precision of contours based on luminance.

This justifies the fact that images should be first transformed in a color model separating the luminance from the chromatic information, before subsampling the chromatic planes which may also use lower quality quantization in order to preserve the precision of the luminance plane with more information bits. For information, the uncompressed bit RGB bitmap image below 73, pixels would require , bytes excluding all other information headers.

The filesizes indicated below include the internal JPEG information headers and some metadata. On grayscale images, a minimum of 6. For most applications, the quality factor should not go below 0. The image at lowest quality uses only 0. This is useful when the image will be displayed in a significantly scaled-down size. The medium quality photo uses only 4.

However, once a certain threshold of compression is passed, compressed images show increasingly visible defects. See the article on rate—distortion theory for a mathematical explanation of this threshold effect. More modern designs such as JPEG and JPEG XR exhibit a more graceful degradation of quality as the bit usage decreases — by using transforms with a larger spatial extent for the lower frequency coefficients and by using overlapping transform basis functions.

From to , new research emerged on ways to further compress the data contained in JPEG images without modifying the represented image. Standard general-purpose compression tools cannot significantly compress JPEG files. Typically, such schemes take advantage of improvements to the naive scheme for coding DCT coefficients, which fails to take into account:. Some standard but rarely used options already exist in JPEG to improve the efficiency of coding DCT coefficients: the arithmetic coding option, and the progressive coding option which produces lower bitrates because values for each coefficient are coded independently, and each coefficient has a significantly different distribution.

Modern methods have improved on these techniques by reordering coefficients to group coefficients of larger magnitude together; [55] using adjacent coefficients and blocks to predict new coefficient values; [57] dividing blocks or coefficients up among a small number of independently coded models based on their statistics and adjacent values; [56] [57] and most recently, by decoding blocks, predicting subsequent blocks in the spatial domain, and then encoding these to generate predictions for DCT coefficients.

It contains two static images, one for the left eye and one for the right eye; encoded as two side-by-side images in a single JPG file. This file format can be viewed as a JPEG without any special software, or can be processed for rendering in other modes. It contains two or more JPEG files concatenated together.

Other devices use it to store "preview images" that can be displayed on a TV. In the last few years, due to the growing use of stereoscopic images, much effort has been spent by the scientific community to develop algorithms for stereoscopic image compression.

It was first published in and was key for the success of the standard. In March , Google released the open source project Guetzli , which trades off a much longer encoding time for smaller file size similar to what Zopfli does for PNG and other lossless data formats.

Extension layers are used to modify the JPEG 8-bit base layer and restore the high-resolution image. Existing software is forward compatible and can read the JPEG XT binary stream, though it would only decode the base 8-bit layer. The standard should also offer higher bit depths 12—16 bit integer and floating point , additional color spaces and transfer functions such as Log C from Arri , embedded preview images, lossless alpha channel encoding, image region coding, and low-complexity encoding.

Any patented technologies would be licensed on a royalty-free basis. The proposals were submitted by September , leading to a committee draft in July , with file format and core coding system were formally standardized on 13 October and 30 March respectively. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 1 August Lossy compression method for reducing the size of digital images.

A photo of a European wildcat with the compression rate decreasing and hence quality increasing, from left to right. Left: a final image is built up from a series of basis functions.

Right: each of the DCT basis functions that comprise the image, and the corresponding weighting coefficient. Middle: the basis function, after multiplication by the coefficient: this component is added to the final image. Main article: Entropy encoding. Slight differences are noticeable between the original top and decompressed image bottom , which is most readily seen in the bottom-left corner.

September Retrieved 12 July Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved The effects of video compression on acceptability of images for monitoring life sciences experiments Technical report. Journal of Electronic Imaging. S2CID BT Group. Archived from the original on 5 August Retrieved 5 August BBC News. Retrieved 13 September Heise online in German.

October Retrieved 5 September The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 3 September